Since Isaac Newton astronomers had been paying closer attention to orbiting curiosities. Newtonian gravity told them a sign of a mass present. But astronomers couldn't find it, at lest not visually anyway. It was theorized a possibility of a star massive enough gravity to absorb a 100% of light explaining the apparent illusion of the missing mass. Today the same mystery holding the universe together called dark matter. The expanding universe poses an additional question if there is enough.
By the end of the19th century physics was thought to be completed except for a couple of hick ups due blackbody radiation mysteries. A German physics Max Planck took up the challenge. In 1900 he came up with formula that eliminated infinites from the equation. The result was a finite number describing mass, energy, length and time called a Planck constant. The value is incredibly tiny, tinier than any particle of the atom. It is a 43 decimal number, 40, decimal 0's,6,2,6 of a meter. Being a finite number it can't get any smaller.
A typical school ruler tell us the thickness of a human hair is less than a micrometer ( or Micron ) A micron is a decimal value of a meter of only a mere 6 decimal 0's and 1. The Planck constant is a minus equal to 34, 0's 6.2,6 or 37 decimal number of a micron.
The mathematics tells us the reciprocal tells us the same number of 0's on the right of the same 6,2,6 giving a positive value. Planck called his creation the Quantum, where quantum physics was born.
Before the theory of relativity was published Albert Einstein published an idea using Planck's Quanta as a light particle called a photon describing what we are familiar with how modem solar cells technology works called the photo electric effect showing light behaves as a particle.
By the time Germany was occupied fighting the British in the Battle of the Somme in World war 1 a German field Gunner and astronomer Karl Schwarzschild (sh war zs child) came across Albert Einstein's recently publish General theory of relativity. In it was the notion mass bending space. The spheres of stars and planets shrinks space round the entire circumference creating shrunken dimples in it where light would follow the curved path towards it.
Armed with Albert Einstein's latest paper predicting matter bends space Schwarzchirld curiosity was aroused wondering what it would take for a body with enough mass to capture a 100% of light.
He turned to mathematics for help based on the center of a sphere to the edge called radius. Armed with the radius of the earth and the speed of light predicted for gravity strong enough would squeeze the diameter of the earth to a centimeter. For this to work with the sun too, gravity would need to be strong enough to compress all the mater to a 3cm called the Schrwazchild radius expressed as a singularity. He sent his findings to Albert Einstein who was pleased with the idea.
Singularities are the center of black holes. The black void that extends millions of kilometers across it hides the singularity. The edge where light disappears called the event horizon and on this edge where light can still escape is called the egersphere.
Thouut the 1920's particle physics had been arguing light shows evidence it is a wave. In fact light does demonstrate it can do things only if it was made of particles such as the photo electric effect one minute and as if to change it's mind does things only a wave can do the next minute. To physicists which is it a wave or particles? The only thing they can do was to go by the evidence it can do both wave and particles actions at the same time.
Since world war 1 quantum physicists had prospered. Thouout the 1920's proposed at an alarming speed a warped sense of physical absurdities in physics. By 1933 Einstein and a fallow physics Nathan Rosen and Boris Podolisky were familiar with most of the updates on the latest theories. Albert Einstein's own theory of relativity predicts photons are particles of light Quantum physics physicists claim on a quantum level are, at lest at a quantum leve are really two places at the same time influencing each other.
To the EPR team meant this action at a distance was way-way beyond light speed common sense. It is as if the physicists were saying the action of stars several million light years away from earth will have an immediate profound effect here on earth.
Einstein Podilosky and Rosen's plan was to gang together to pull their weight to settle the absurd nature of this claim once and for all. The thought of using Einstein's gravity distorting an infinitely deep well in space was a rather dubious distortion of Einstein's general theory.
The trio proposed if a star was heavy enough to absorb a 100% of light clear across the other side of the universe was sinking a deep well in space. Only if another one doing the same in this side of the universe considered theoretically feasible the two wells will link together forming a bridge across the universe becoming known as the legendary wormhole or better known as the Einstein. Podliski Rosen bridge theory.
In other words, the dark stars we express as black holes today sink wells linking together like a pair kitchen funnels. According to Newtonian gravity, masses would be pulling everything together. From our point of view the other end opens out to another universe paralleling ours. From the other end point of view ours parallels it. Relativity tells us it all depends on the point of view. In other words, every universe is a parallel model of each other.
According to Newman gravity the combined mass of each universe should pull the link opposite directions one for each universe in a tug of war pulling it apart. Because of the combined gravitational fields of each universe the bridge is instantly unstable.
Another proposal has emerged if a black hole spins on a light speed scale. We immediately think of the potential centrifugal force forcing it into a ring. The law of circular monition tells us a different story.
A spinning pin in the center of a circling circle doesn't circle. It only spins while the outer edge edge travels a maximum distance. There should be no centrifugal force acting on the pin while all the force is concentrated in the maximum distance of the circle.
Pi ( Pie ) is an ideal mathematical formulae for calculating the dimensions of spheres. Take a ball for example. If we wrap piece of string round it, cut to size and open out to a straight line, the same straight line rolled into a circle tells us all straight lines are a reflection of the circumference of all spheres. Measuring the length of any straight line is the same as the circumference of a sphere it will fit round. So the circumference of the rim of classes and cups is the same circumference of the spheres testimony when a sphere fits smuggly round the rims of cups and glasses.
When open out a string to a straight line round the rim of a glass it will go across it, Once, Twice and Three times and a little bit more about a 7th over. Mathematics tells 1 divide 7 plus 3 accurate to 3 decimal places. A two dollar calculator tells 3.142871. Unlike light speed and the Planck constant finite values the decimal value is not. Mathematicians have been trying to find the end of the decimal value for centuries because it appears to be a mathematical oddity of being infinite.
If we measure across the glass with a ruler ( the diameter ), and multiply by pi and measure the length of the string we measured round the rim will agree. If we divide the length of the same string by pi and measure across the rim of the glass will agree.
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